Mesopotamian, Indian, and Chinese" Overview - World Literature Paper
EssayChat / Dec 26, 2016
Unit Two, a study of the ancient world, includes works based on oral literature and from cultures that employ early forms of writing. The literature reflects the values fundamental to the ancient civilizations. The literary works you will study in this unit include an epic from ancient Mesopotamia, an epic from Inidia, Chinese poetry from the Book of Songs, and excerpts from Confucius' Analects.
Mesopotamian writing (the Sumerian cuneiform writing on clay tablets) is thought to have been developed ca. 3000 BCE. Legends of the Mesopotamian Gilgamesh were written in cuneiform on clay tablets ca. 2000 BCE, and the epic of Gilgamesh was written ca. 1600.
Ramayana and Mahabharata are two epics from India that have a pervasive influence both at the religious core as well as the popular culture of India. Classified as ithihasa, literally meaning "thus it was," the two epics encapsulate poetically the foundation and history of the Aryan royalty in ancient India. Composed and edited from roughly 550 BCE to 400 AD, the epics continue to be celebrated through the ages as sacred narratives. They define and embody the religious, moral, ethical, social, and cultural values of Hindus in India, Southeast Asia, and the Hindu diaspora.
China is a huge nation, and it has incorporated many peoples with many languages, but it has shared and revered a literature transmitted carefully, with no interruption, since the Shang dynasty (around 1750-1020 BCE). Chinese writing, beginning as pictographs on tortoiseshells and then thin bamboo strips, evolved into characters representing not only sounds but also ideas and things. These characters could be read by people who lived in different times and whose spoken languages were different. The Chou dynasty (1020 BCE-256 BCE) followed the Shang dynasty, and the literature and history of these periods set the standard for Chinese culture from then on.
The cultural values represented by the Mesopotamian epic, Gilgamesh, have to be determined from the epic itself since little other cultural evidence is available to us. It is our most ancient literature and reflects the success of an ancient culture, whose populace achieved civilization within the confines of its power. A similar appreciation for order and civilization and similar respect for natural forces, including those necessary for agricultural production, can be found in Ramayana and some of the poems in the Chinese Classic of Poetry.
Two characteristics that ancient literatures generally have in common are that they reflect the beginning of urban civilization and they reflect the admiration of the cultures for their heroes. The historical Mesopotamian hero, Gilgamesh, ruled in the city of Uruk. Rama's Ayodhya is the epitome of prosperity and impeccable moral values under illustrious King Rama. The political power in ancient China moved from one region to another as the dynasties came and went, and capital cities were a part of each period of rule. We do not readily think of a Chinese hero in the sense of Gilgamesh or Odysseus, but the Chou (Zhou) Dynasty was revered long after it had passed into history because of another kind of hero, Confucius, who made an ideal of the manners and philosophical order of the Chou reign.
Mesopotamian, Indian, and Chinese - External Links:
Gilgamesh
An introduction to the Egyptian mythic system
The Epic of Gilgamesh Video
The Ramayana Of Valmiki
Meditating Cultures: The Foundational Role of the Ramayana in South & Southeast Asian Societies
Confucius and Poems
Emperors of China
Chinese Writing
Ancient Dynasties
Gilgamesh: Introduction
As Maureen Gallery Kovacs notes in the introduction of her translation of the work* the epic poem Gilgamesh has been known to the modern world for only the last 120 years, since shortly after the decipherment of cuneiform writing. Gilgamesh was written in the dialect of the Akkadian language, called Standard Babylonian, used in written literature. The epic consists of eleven sections (tablets) each with 300 or fewer lines of poetry. The tablets recovered so far represent some 8 to 12 copies of the epic. Most were found in the palace and temple libraries at Nineveh in Assyria and date from the Seventh century BCE. Other tablets have been found in the northern Mesopotamian sites of Assur, Nimrud, and Sultantepe, and the southern Mesopotamian sites of Uruk and Babylon. (See the story of the flood on a clay tablet in the British Museum.)
Kovac points out that although hardened clay is resistant to decay, because of severe damage to a number of tablets, only 60% of the epic is now preserved. Fortunately, parallel passages in the text have helped in the recreation of some missing parts. In 1986, Iraqi archeologists excavating at Sippar in central Iraq discovered an intact library dating to about the late 6th century BCE that contained complete literary tablets, still on their shelves. A complete "Myth of Atrahasis" (the Flood Story) has been reported from this discovery.
*Maureen Gallery Kovacs, The Epic of Gilgamesh. Stanford University Press: Stanford, 1989.
An epic is a long narrative poem, usually in elevated style, with a central figure of heroic proportions involved in adventures that have a significant impact on the history of a nation or race. Some scholars believe that epics may have evolved from the scattered works of various unknown poets and that through accretion the works came together, with the poets gradually forming them into a unified whole with an ordered sequence. Others believe that while the materials of an epic may have accumulated in this fashion, the particular epic poem itself was the creation of a single genius who gave it form and expression. Epics share the following general characteristics:
1.The hero is a figure of imposing stature, of great historical or legendary significance.
2.The setting is vast in scope, encompassing nations, the world, or the universe.
3.The action involves deeds of great valor requiring superhuman courage.
4.Supernatural forces " gods, angels, demons or other supernatural forces " participate in the action from time to time.
5.The poet uses the style of sustained elevation.
Along with these characteristics (some of which may not be found in particular epics), one may also add a list of common devices (conventions). The following are characteristic of many or most epic poems:
opens by stating the theme and invoking a Muse to inspire and guide the poet through the grand endeavor
begins the narrative in medias res ("in the middle of things") with the necessary exposition in later portions of the epic
includes a catalog of warriors, ships, armies
gives extended formal speeches by the hero and some of the main characters
includes epic similes in the narrative
Because of the antiquity of some poems and the fact that in many cases only fragments of the works are extant, some epics do not reveal all of these features.
Standard & Old Babylonian Versions
We currently have access to three different versions of the epic that were composed over a period of nearly 1,000 years. The standard version is the one in which the content and wording seem to have become fairly consistent over a geographic wide area throughout many centuries. This standard version was based on an earlier epic of Gilgamesh that was first composed in the Old Babylonian period (1800 - 1600 BCE) and seems to have existed in two or more variants. The remains of the old Babylonian tablets are fragmentary but extremely interesting, for they are often markedly different in content and style from the standard version of the same episodes. Between the standard version and that of the Old Babylonian period are other fragments that date to the middle Babylonian period and that come not only from Mesopotamia proper, but also from other areas adopting cuneiform " namely Anatolia, Syria, and Canaan. In Anatolia, the epic was adopted or translated in Hurrian and Hittite.
The material in the old Babylonian version does not form a connected cycle, nor provide a major unifying theme, such as the fear of death. It is believed that the author of that version drew heavily from a number of independent, short, heroic tales about Gilgamesh that were circulating in the Sumerian language. In addition to these Sumerian tales, the old Babylonian author incorporated themes from a variety of other myths unrelated to Gilgamesh.
Sumerian Versions
Sumerian versions of the epic also exist in fragments, namely " "Gilgamesh and Agga," "Gilgamesh and Huwawa" (also known as "Gilgamesh and the Cedar Forest"), "Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven," and "Gilgamesh in the Netherworld." An Akkadian "Myth of Atrahasis," which is part of another composition not originally related to Gilgamesh, is also incorporated in the standard version. "The Myth of Atrahasis," composed around 1600 BCE, talks about the creation of man, about attempts by the gods to exterminate mankind because of noise and over population, and about a final flood survived only by Atrahasis (Utnapishtim) and his family.
The Historical King Gilgamesh
The central figure, Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk during the Second Early Dynastic Period in Sumer (ca. 2700-2500) was an early Sumerian king who had gained legendary fame long before the full development of the epic poem. Later inscriptions credit him with building the Wall of Uruk and rebuilding a shrine in Nippur around 2000 BCE. Sources indicate that this epic was popular throughout the ancient Near East from the beginning of the second millennium BCE until at least the middle of the sixth century BCE.
Gilgamesh and Enkidu
The special bond that exists between Gilgamesh and Enkidu helps to unravel the "human" side of Gilgamesh and helps us to understand another facet of his personality. Parallels to this exemplary friendship are found in some of the other epics, including Achilles and Patroclus in The Iliad and Rma and Lakmana in Rmyana.
Writing
Mesopotamian writing (the Sumerian cuneiform writing on clay tablets) is thought to have been developed ca. 3000 BCE. Legends of the Mesopotamian Gilgamesh were written in cuneiform on clay tablets ca. 2000 BCE, and the epic of Gilgamesh was written ca. 1600.
Ramayana and Mahabharata are two epics from India that have a pervasive influence both at the religious core as well as the popular culture of India. Classified as ithihasa, literally meaning "thus it was," the two epics encapsulate poetically the foundation and history of the Aryan royalty in ancient India. Composed and edited from roughly 550 BCE to 400 AD, the epics continue to be celebrated through the ages as sacred narratives. They define and embody the religious, moral, ethical, social, and cultural values of Hindus in India, Southeast Asia, and the Hindu diaspora.China is a huge nation, and it has incorporated many peoples with many languages, but it has shared and revered a literature transmitted carefully, with no interruption, since the Shang dynasty (around 1750-1020 BCE). Chinese writing, beginning as pictographs on tortoiseshells and then thin bamboo strips, evolved into characters representing not only sounds but also ideas and things. These characters could be read by people who lived in different times and whose spoken languages were different. The Chou dynasty (1020 BCE-256 BCE) followed the Shang dynasty, and the literature and history of these periods set the standard for Chinese culture from then on.
Values
The cultural values represented by the Mesopotamian epic, Gilgamesh, have to be determined from the epic itself since little other cultural evidence is available to us. It is our most ancient literature and reflects the success of an ancient culture, whose populace achieved civilization within the confines of its power. A similar appreciation for order and civilization and similar respect for natural forces, including those necessary for agricultural production, can be found in Ramayana and some of the poems in the Chinese Classic of Poetry.
Heroes and Cities
Two characteristics that ancient literatures generally have in common are that they reflect the beginning of urban civilization and they reflect the admiration of the cultures for their heroes. The historical Mesopotamian hero, Gilgamesh, ruled in the city of Uruk. Rama's Ayodhya is the epitome of prosperity and impeccable moral values under illustrious King Rama. The political power in ancient China moved from one region to another as the dynasties came and went, and capital cities were a part of each period of rule. We do not readily think of a Chinese hero in the sense of Gilgamesh or Odysseus, but the Chou (Zhou) Dynasty was revered long after it had passed into history because of another kind of hero, Confucius, who made an ideal of the manners and philosophical order of the Chou reign.
Mesopotamian, Indian, and Chinese - External Links:
Gilgamesh
An introduction to the Egyptian mythic system
The Epic of Gilgamesh Video
The Ramayana Of Valmiki
Meditating Cultures: The Foundational Role of the Ramayana in South & Southeast Asian Societies
Confucius and Poems
Emperors of China
Chinese Writing
Ancient Dynasties
Gilgamesh: Introduction
As Maureen Gallery Kovacs notes in the introduction of her translation of the work* the epic poem Gilgamesh has been known to the modern world for only the last 120 years, since shortly after the decipherment of cuneiform writing. Gilgamesh was written in the dialect of the Akkadian language, called Standard Babylonian, used in written literature. The epic consists of eleven sections (tablets) each with 300 or fewer lines of poetry. The tablets recovered so far represent some 8 to 12 copies of the epic. Most were found in the palace and temple libraries at Nineveh in Assyria and date from the Seventh century BCE. Other tablets have been found in the northern Mesopotamian sites of Assur, Nimrud, and Sultantepe, and the southern Mesopotamian sites of Uruk and Babylon. (See the story of the flood on a clay tablet in the British Museum.)
Kovac points out that although hardened clay is resistant to decay, because of severe damage to a number of tablets, only 60% of the epic is now preserved. Fortunately, parallel passages in the text have helped in the recreation of some missing parts. In 1986, Iraqi archeologists excavating at Sippar in central Iraq discovered an intact library dating to about the late 6th century BCE that contained complete literary tablets, still on their shelves. A complete "Myth of Atrahasis" (the Flood Story) has been reported from this discovery.
*Maureen Gallery Kovacs, The Epic of Gilgamesh. Stanford University Press: Stanford, 1989.
Characteristics of Epics:
An epic is a long narrative poem, usually in elevated style, with a central figure of heroic proportions involved in adventures that have a significant impact on the history of a nation or race. Some scholars believe that epics may have evolved from the scattered works of various unknown poets and that through accretion the works came together, with the poets gradually forming them into a unified whole with an ordered sequence. Others believe that while the materials of an epic may have accumulated in this fashion, the particular epic poem itself was the creation of a single genius who gave it form and expression. Epics share the following general characteristics:
1.The hero is a figure of imposing stature, of great historical or legendary significance.
2.The setting is vast in scope, encompassing nations, the world, or the universe.
3.The action involves deeds of great valor requiring superhuman courage.
4.Supernatural forces " gods, angels, demons or other supernatural forces " participate in the action from time to time.
5.The poet uses the style of sustained elevation.
Along with these characteristics (some of which may not be found in particular epics), one may also add a list of common devices (conventions). The following are characteristic of many or most epic poems:
opens by stating the theme and invoking a Muse to inspire and guide the poet through the grand endeavor
begins the narrative in medias res ("in the middle of things") with the necessary exposition in later portions of the epic
includes a catalog of warriors, ships, armies
gives extended formal speeches by the hero and some of the main characters
includes epic similes in the narrative
Because of the antiquity of some poems and the fact that in many cases only fragments of the works are extant, some epics do not reveal all of these features.
Versions of Gilgamesh:
Standard & Old Babylonian Versions
We currently have access to three different versions of the epic that were composed over a period of nearly 1,000 years. The standard version is the one in which the content and wording seem to have become fairly consistent over a geographic wide area throughout many centuries. This standard version was based on an earlier epic of Gilgamesh that was first composed in the Old Babylonian period (1800 - 1600 BCE) and seems to have existed in two or more variants. The remains of the old Babylonian tablets are fragmentary but extremely interesting, for they are often markedly different in content and style from the standard version of the same episodes. Between the standard version and that of the Old Babylonian period are other fragments that date to the middle Babylonian period and that come not only from Mesopotamia proper, but also from other areas adopting cuneiform " namely Anatolia, Syria, and Canaan. In Anatolia, the epic was adopted or translated in Hurrian and Hittite.
The material in the old Babylonian version does not form a connected cycle, nor provide a major unifying theme, such as the fear of death. It is believed that the author of that version drew heavily from a number of independent, short, heroic tales about Gilgamesh that were circulating in the Sumerian language. In addition to these Sumerian tales, the old Babylonian author incorporated themes from a variety of other myths unrelated to Gilgamesh.
Sumerian Versions
Sumerian versions of the epic also exist in fragments, namely " "Gilgamesh and Agga," "Gilgamesh and Huwawa" (also known as "Gilgamesh and the Cedar Forest"), "Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven," and "Gilgamesh in the Netherworld." An Akkadian "Myth of Atrahasis," which is part of another composition not originally related to Gilgamesh, is also incorporated in the standard version. "The Myth of Atrahasis," composed around 1600 BCE, talks about the creation of man, about attempts by the gods to exterminate mankind because of noise and over population, and about a final flood survived only by Atrahasis (Utnapishtim) and his family.
Gilgamesh as a Human Being:
The Historical King Gilgamesh
The central figure, Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk during the Second Early Dynastic Period in Sumer (ca. 2700-2500) was an early Sumerian king who had gained legendary fame long before the full development of the epic poem. Later inscriptions credit him with building the Wall of Uruk and rebuilding a shrine in Nippur around 2000 BCE. Sources indicate that this epic was popular throughout the ancient Near East from the beginning of the second millennium BCE until at least the middle of the sixth century BCE.
Gilgamesh and Enkidu
The special bond that exists between Gilgamesh and Enkidu helps to unravel the "human" side of Gilgamesh and helps us to understand another facet of his personality. Parallels to this exemplary friendship are found in some of the other epics, including Achilles and Patroclus in The Iliad and Rma and Lakmana in Rmyana.