Consumer Culture and Commodities as Markers of Class - English Research Essay
EssayChat / May 18, 2017
Towards the last quarter of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth-century, a series of changes were experienced all over Europe. In England, the growing middle-class replaced the declining social influence previously held by the aristocrats. The significance of pedigree in the English society was beginning to wear off. During this period, numerous economic activities were growing and gaining great recognition. The manufacturing industry was beginning to take off and land was fast losing its monopolistic value as the only source of wealth. Trade was beginning to emerge as an alternative wealth-creating endeavour and most people ventured in the production and retail industries. Consumption of these goods was becoming a standard within the English society. Wealth was being measured by the level of commodities and consumer culture that individuals embraced. The middle-class was taking over the society. The consumption of expensive, fancy and luxurious products marked the social and economic classes of individuals during the late eighteenth to early nineteenth-century England society. In this case, consumer culture and commodities can be interpreted as the main markers of class during this period. The value of commodities was mainly determined by factors such as the cost of production, uniqueness, their general availability and their place in the lives of human beings. The higher the value of a commodity, the more expensive it retailed. As such, only the rich members of the society could afford such products; hence, they became referred to as the luxury commodities. The consumer culture, especially as pertains to the consumption of the expensive and luxurious products greatly contributed to the adoration and admiration of members of the wealthy middle-class. The various social classes were thus determined by one's ability to spend, especially on the expensive and fancy commodities. This essay will argue that commodity or consumer culture in the 1700 - 1800 periods acted as markers of class in numerous ways, especially considering that aspects such as taste, style, elegance and sophistication in commodity consumption dictated an individual's influence and worth within the society.
According to Porter and Roberts, "a middle-class man's wife mainly played the primary role of portraying and displaying the fancy commodities that her husband bought for her." The financial success of the middle-class husband was measured using the luxurious products contained within their household. These commodities were famously referred to as the "paraphernalia of elegance" as they represented class and sophistication.
Commodities such as pianos, paintings and carpets had a high level of importance to the society. They were symbols of fancy living. They also portrayed the social standing of an individual especially in terms of importance. To add to the level of adoration that this consumer culture brought about, one of the most famous women magazines 'Englishwoman's Domestic Magazine' "ran advertisements on the material possessions of some of the wealthiest homesteads" (White, M. 2017). They were characterized among the highly stylish members of the society. Their general social influence also improved significantly due to the importance placed on the ability to spend lavishly. In addition, most wealthy middle-class citizens were considered to be patriotic due to their willingness to spend on some of the expensive products produced in their countries. According to White, increased "spending on fancy commodities had a direct effect on the economic wellbeing." This aspect would also increase the rates by which raw materials were imported for the production of such precious products. These activities significantly increased the levels of production of such fancy commodities. The importance placed on class when spending heavily on expensive and luxurious products boosted the lavish consumer culture in England.
As a marker of class, spending on luxurious commodities earned members of the middle-class a senior position in social affairs. According to Berg, the wife of a rich middle-class man was more of a billboard "who primarily played the role of publicizing the material success of her spouse." The level by which she changed her outfits and the quality of such clothes spoke volumes about her social class. In addition, her body appearance was also a statement of class. Such women were extremely keen to appear elegant and wealthy. Their smooth skins hinted that they were wives of some successful individuals within the society. As such, "the sophistication of these women captured the attention of the general society" (Kowaleski-Wallace, 1995, 158). In this case, heavy spending was directly associated with stylishness, sophistication and a higher social class.
The role of education and professional skill development was at the centre of an improved society through wealth accumulation. As indicated above, a high premium was placed on one's ability to spend lavishly. This would be made possible through a high level of wealth accumulation that mainly required one to hold a well-paying job or run a major business. As such, the role of skill development and education came in handy as "most people aimed at filling the upper classes of the social structure due to the levels of esteem and admiration commanded by such status" (Porter and Roberts, 1996). In addition, the industrial revolution that had already taken off required a great wealth of technical experience and skills for successful economic activities to be conducted. Professions that required both clerical and technical skills demanded that the individuals filling such positions had adequate knowledge, skills, and expertise. Education was also a significant additive to one's social class as it enabled for prudence in wealth management and accumulation. Ultimately, disciplined spending was not so popular because the society competed in large-scale consumption of fancy commodities.
The main reason behind the accumulation of wealth was for spending on all manner of fancy and expensive commodities. Existence in such a society drove every individual into a wealth-accumulation mission because a luxurious consumption culture indicated an individual's worth in the society. As a marker of class, it was respectable to own luxury commodities. The level of importance placed on a commodity such as jewellery indicated the worth of material products on the life of man during this period. Indeed, the greater possession in terms of expensive and luxurious commodities pushed an individual higher up the social class ladder. White contends, "It was fashionable to spend more and flaunt one's elegance" (White, M. 2017). Considering the middle-class society had replaced the aristocrats in terms of social influence and worth, greater consumer spending meant more power and authority. The society was divided according to an individual's level of consumption of the fancy commodities and elegance; hence, this served as a major marker of class during this period.
Members of the working class were not involved in the lavish, luxurious and fancy spending that their counterparts, the middle-class practiced. Their social class was inferior to that of their rich masters. They were perceived to be servants. Working-class members worked as labourers "as they could not afford the lavish lifestyles of fancy consumption during this period" Brewer, 2004). Their salaries were not high enough to indulge in the luxurious spending. In addition, the middle-class had placed a high value on the price of fancy products. Their willingness to spend highly in order to retain a place in the high social class mainly eliminated any type of competition from the meagrely compensated working class members. Kowaleski-Wallace asserts, "the working class could barely afford the lifestyles and spending sprees of the elegant class" (Kowaleski-Wallace, 1995, 164). The yearning to attain such standards was rampant across the various levels of socio-economic classes. This could indicate the significance of abundant spending on consumerism and other material goods during the eighteenth-century England. The society had a set belief on the importance of purchasing the luxurious commodities. Based on the economic hardship of the working class, their importance towards the society was overlooked. Individuals with limited abilities to partake in the consumerism of this period were not considered to be of any importance to the general wellbeing of the society. The newly found interest in commodity purchase, accumulation of luxurious products and uncontrolled spending propelled the middle-class higher up the social hierarchy. "The middle class accumulated more power, while the aristocratic class lost their influence as land ownership rapidly lost its previously held significance" (Porter and Roberts, 1996). As markers of class, consumer culture and commodity purchase controlled the social discourse. Any individual with an accumulation of glittering or expensive commodities earned a special place among the elegant elites and further gained some social influence that was regarded as extremely powerful during this period.
Barry observes that an improved system of transportation and manufacturing "boosted the processes pertaining to the manufacturing, buying and selling of commodities." This trend was greatly responsible for rampant spending and the squabble to accumulate wealth among the middle-class. The advent of the city and urban centres also marked a rise in the importance placed on the process of buying and selling of commodities. As such, shopping grew into a basic social activity. It was becoming almost ritualistic to window-shop and "consumers spent their hard-earned income in the purchase of luxury products" (Brewer, 2004). Many retailers, in a rush to accumulate more wealth and ascend higher through the class system, took advantage of these trends and "opened even more elegant and attractive shopping centres" (White, 2006, 102). The attraction of wealthy customers was primarily the point behind setting up the shopping centres in elegant and rich neighbourhoods. The classification based on material possessions was used in determining neighbourhoods and towns with the greatest potential for increased spending. The importance of the wealthy middle-class was seen to take greater significance, especially as far as the establishment of elegant buildings and shopping stores was concerned. Resultantly, the wealthy middle-class was surrounded by a wealth of elegant structures. These became the urban centres, "which every member of the society wanted to be associated with because of their levels of sophistication-both in terms of products being retailed and for the general purpose of associating with style" (Berg, 2005). The urban centres were recognised as the soul of material possession, elegance and style. The aspect of consumer culture brought about a new social order. Increased spending earned an individual some level of respect from the other members of the society. These developments led to the growth of more distinct social classes that were divided based on refinement, influence, power, wealth and consumerism.
While the wealthy middle-class dominated the urban centres, the poor working class also practiced the culture of consumptions as they aspired to inherit the elegant social classes held by the lavish spenders. The importance of consumption, even though on a smaller scale, was seen to take root in the small towns and shopping centres. Weekly markets, for instance, were filled with merchants and buyers who aspired to partake in the culture of retail and consumption. Berg affirms that hawkers, peddlers and dealers in agricultural produce "were among the many individuals involved in the businesses of purchase and retail" (Berg, 2005). Among the working-class, spending was enough. Accumulation of commodities among them was not marked with elegance, but the involvement in the practice was fulfilling as a cultural phenomenon. In contrast, the middle-class spent their money in an elegant fashion. The middle-class not only partook in the consumerism, they did so with utmost grandeur. They purchased the most expensive and high-quality products "to remain dominant in their classes that were punctuated by style and fashion" (White, 2006, 96). Most shops embraced an attractive design in order to attract the passers-by. Considering most individuals in this period had ventured in some form of retail businesses, the competition and rush to attract as many customers was abundantly great. This aspect was necessitated by the consumer culture that had rocked England during the eighteenth century. As such, the emergence of elegance in shopping centres further led to the sophistication and urbanisation of the shops. Brilliant and colourful lighting were embraced in order to attract the potential buyers. The aspect of consumerism during this period significantly contributed to the development of these trends. Eventually, consumption and the purchase of commodities were seen as the greatest measure of patriotism. These activities were regarded as the indicators of social importance, and thus, earned one a spot among the most respected hierarchical classes.
As the social classes categorised all individuals within the society according to their levels of refinement and elegance, the shops also started being stratified according to the consumers they attracted based on the characteristics of products on retail. As such, the emergence of shops that catered to refined tastes was seen to take shape during this period. Kowaleski-Wallace claims that shopping in such avenues "automatically defined the social class and status of the consumer" (Kowaleski-Wallace, 1995, 163). This is another significant way by which the commodities and consumer culture can be seen as markers of class in the eighteenth-century England. The various classes of traders, some of who traded in furniture, clothing, hats and jewellery, marked their niches and territories. They popularised their trademarks and became renowned among the middle-class elites with money to spend on their commodities. They were the greatest contributors to the class system based on consumer abilities to purchase their expensive and fashionable products. The wealthy individuals were keen on publicising the trademarks of their preferred retailers, especially as these "boosted their social relevance and profiles" (White, M. 2017). Wearing a certain brand of cloth or jewellery would earn an individual utmost respect within the society. In addition, ensuring that the commodities were among the latest entrants into the market would earn an individual a significant amount of esteem based on their fashion statement, refinement and taste. According to a visitor to England, the eighteenth-century London was:
"a world of gold and silver plate, then pearls, gems shedding with their dazzling lustre , home manufacturers of the most exquisite taste, an ocean of rings, watches, chains, bracelets, perfumes, ribbons, ready-dresses, bonnets, laces and fruits from all zones of the habitable world" (White, M. 2017).
Barry states that the women of this period served as "mothers, wives or household managers" (Barry, 1991, 215). Their levels of refinement were thus measured through material possessions and household items. Expensive and elegant dresses, as well as jewellery and perfumes, were seen as the greatest possessions among women. The success of their husbands was reflected by their individual wellbeing and the wealth in household possessions. One of the most important household possessions during this period was the tea table. This commodity was a symbol of class and social distinction. Tea was among the greatest indicators of elegance and taste. As such, owning a tea table that captured the fashion and taste aspects earned an individual a great wealth of social respect and class. Expensive and fashionable dresses were worn on a need basis. This means that the wives of the rich middle-class men would change their attires according to their moods and activities. Jewellery and perfumes were also seen to complement their physical elegance and taste. These factors determined the levels of "refinement and class among members of the English society during the eighteenth-century" (Berg, 2005). They also determined the social significance that an individual was accorded.
Brewer observes that the "adoption of materials goods as tools of competition and the development of the materialistic culture were major periods that greatly contributed towards the growth of consumerism and commodities as markers of class" (Brewer, 2004). As opposed to the previous social structure where land owned by the aristocrats was seen as the only factor of wealth and influence, consumerism during the eighteenth-century England transformed the social spectrum by placing a greater premium on wealth and commodities. Lavish spending became significantly fashionable; hence, most middle-class members became involved in the rush to accumulate wealth and luxurious commodities as a social statement. A historian, Barry (1991, 212), affirms that from the period of Elizabeth I, "consumerism and competition based on commodity accumulation became significant aspects in terms of social differentiation. " Social differentiation was mainly achieved through variations in consumerism throughout the society. The competition in terms of consumption that initially involved the noble class gradually trickled down to the rest of society. Luxury products, according to Kowaleski-Wallace (1995, 160), played a significant role in the "partition of markets and social classes." The product variations mainly contributed to the greater difference in terms of the various levels of consumers within the society. Placing different values on varying commodities was decisive in the categorization of markets, vendors, commodities and eventually, class. The wealthy consumers dictated their levels of significance within the society, especially as they contributed to the success of the trading economy. A capitalist economy, which mainly relies on the success of individual businesses would emerge; thereby, "transforming the general society and advancing the culture of consumption" (Berg, 2005). The consumer culture led to the development of strong brands and through the gradual improvement in the quality of commodities, the levels of competition among consumers and retailers steadily increased. Class was determined by the taste, elegance and sophistication of each individual. As such, consumption served as a perfect marker of class during this period.
Conclusion
In conclusion, commodities and consumer culture were great determiners of class during the eighteenth-century England. As has been discussed above, lavish spending earned individuals a greater social authority in terms of both influence and elegance. The value that was placed on commodity accumulation, especially the expensive and luxurious products, served as the main determiners of an individual's class. The middle and the working classes were seen to possess distinct classes within the society. The differentiation of shops, markets and brands created the distinctive aspect experienced among members of these classes. Various commodities were accorded distinct values based on their quality and availability. These distinctions further contributed to their affordability among the various members of the society. As such, individuals occupying the elegant and sophisticated class, and who also wanted to stand out from the rest of society preferred to spend their money on the most premium products available in the market. The levels of influence and significance gained from the consumption of luxury products were also a primary determinant in their decisions to indulge in the material products. Through such actions, they marked and broadcasted their social class. Being among the wealthy middle-class, these individuals gained significant influence and ranked among the highest social hierarchy of the English society. Eventually, the urbanisation of shopping centres and the establishment of cities with distinct shopping areas designated for the high-ranking consumers served as the single-most important aspect that established class through the consumer culture and quality of commodities purchased by different individuals. The elegant, influential, sophisticated and styling consumers had their preferred types of designers, brands, markets and shops. Indeed, the consumption culture and types of commodities served as markers of class among these consumers.
According to Porter and Roberts, "a middle-class man's wife mainly played the primary role of portraying and displaying the fancy commodities that her husband bought for her." The financial success of the middle-class husband was measured using the luxurious products contained within their household. These commodities were famously referred to as the "paraphernalia of elegance" as they represented class and sophistication.Commodities such as pianos, paintings and carpets had a high level of importance to the society. They were symbols of fancy living. They also portrayed the social standing of an individual especially in terms of importance. To add to the level of adoration that this consumer culture brought about, one of the most famous women magazines 'Englishwoman's Domestic Magazine' "ran advertisements on the material possessions of some of the wealthiest homesteads" (White, M. 2017). They were characterized among the highly stylish members of the society. Their general social influence also improved significantly due to the importance placed on the ability to spend lavishly. In addition, most wealthy middle-class citizens were considered to be patriotic due to their willingness to spend on some of the expensive products produced in their countries. According to White, increased "spending on fancy commodities had a direct effect on the economic wellbeing." This aspect would also increase the rates by which raw materials were imported for the production of such precious products. These activities significantly increased the levels of production of such fancy commodities. The importance placed on class when spending heavily on expensive and luxurious products boosted the lavish consumer culture in England.
As a marker of class, spending on luxurious commodities earned members of the middle-class a senior position in social affairs. According to Berg, the wife of a rich middle-class man was more of a billboard "who primarily played the role of publicizing the material success of her spouse." The level by which she changed her outfits and the quality of such clothes spoke volumes about her social class. In addition, her body appearance was also a statement of class. Such women were extremely keen to appear elegant and wealthy. Their smooth skins hinted that they were wives of some successful individuals within the society. As such, "the sophistication of these women captured the attention of the general society" (Kowaleski-Wallace, 1995, 158). In this case, heavy spending was directly associated with stylishness, sophistication and a higher social class.
The role of education and professional skill development was at the centre of an improved society through wealth accumulation. As indicated above, a high premium was placed on one's ability to spend lavishly. This would be made possible through a high level of wealth accumulation that mainly required one to hold a well-paying job or run a major business. As such, the role of skill development and education came in handy as "most people aimed at filling the upper classes of the social structure due to the levels of esteem and admiration commanded by such status" (Porter and Roberts, 1996). In addition, the industrial revolution that had already taken off required a great wealth of technical experience and skills for successful economic activities to be conducted. Professions that required both clerical and technical skills demanded that the individuals filling such positions had adequate knowledge, skills, and expertise. Education was also a significant additive to one's social class as it enabled for prudence in wealth management and accumulation. Ultimately, disciplined spending was not so popular because the society competed in large-scale consumption of fancy commodities.
The main reason behind the accumulation of wealth was for spending on all manner of fancy and expensive commodities. Existence in such a society drove every individual into a wealth-accumulation mission because a luxurious consumption culture indicated an individual's worth in the society. As a marker of class, it was respectable to own luxury commodities. The level of importance placed on a commodity such as jewellery indicated the worth of material products on the life of man during this period. Indeed, the greater possession in terms of expensive and luxurious commodities pushed an individual higher up the social class ladder. White contends, "It was fashionable to spend more and flaunt one's elegance" (White, M. 2017). Considering the middle-class society had replaced the aristocrats in terms of social influence and worth, greater consumer spending meant more power and authority. The society was divided according to an individual's level of consumption of the fancy commodities and elegance; hence, this served as a major marker of class during this period.
Members of the working class were not involved in the lavish, luxurious and fancy spending that their counterparts, the middle-class practiced. Their social class was inferior to that of their rich masters. They were perceived to be servants. Working-class members worked as labourers "as they could not afford the lavish lifestyles of fancy consumption during this period" Brewer, 2004). Their salaries were not high enough to indulge in the luxurious spending. In addition, the middle-class had placed a high value on the price of fancy products. Their willingness to spend highly in order to retain a place in the high social class mainly eliminated any type of competition from the meagrely compensated working class members. Kowaleski-Wallace asserts, "the working class could barely afford the lifestyles and spending sprees of the elegant class" (Kowaleski-Wallace, 1995, 164). The yearning to attain such standards was rampant across the various levels of socio-economic classes. This could indicate the significance of abundant spending on consumerism and other material goods during the eighteenth-century England. The society had a set belief on the importance of purchasing the luxurious commodities. Based on the economic hardship of the working class, their importance towards the society was overlooked. Individuals with limited abilities to partake in the consumerism of this period were not considered to be of any importance to the general wellbeing of the society. The newly found interest in commodity purchase, accumulation of luxurious products and uncontrolled spending propelled the middle-class higher up the social hierarchy. "The middle class accumulated more power, while the aristocratic class lost their influence as land ownership rapidly lost its previously held significance" (Porter and Roberts, 1996). As markers of class, consumer culture and commodity purchase controlled the social discourse. Any individual with an accumulation of glittering or expensive commodities earned a special place among the elegant elites and further gained some social influence that was regarded as extremely powerful during this period.
Barry observes that an improved system of transportation and manufacturing "boosted the processes pertaining to the manufacturing, buying and selling of commodities." This trend was greatly responsible for rampant spending and the squabble to accumulate wealth among the middle-class. The advent of the city and urban centres also marked a rise in the importance placed on the process of buying and selling of commodities. As such, shopping grew into a basic social activity. It was becoming almost ritualistic to window-shop and "consumers spent their hard-earned income in the purchase of luxury products" (Brewer, 2004). Many retailers, in a rush to accumulate more wealth and ascend higher through the class system, took advantage of these trends and "opened even more elegant and attractive shopping centres" (White, 2006, 102). The attraction of wealthy customers was primarily the point behind setting up the shopping centres in elegant and rich neighbourhoods. The classification based on material possessions was used in determining neighbourhoods and towns with the greatest potential for increased spending. The importance of the wealthy middle-class was seen to take greater significance, especially as far as the establishment of elegant buildings and shopping stores was concerned. Resultantly, the wealthy middle-class was surrounded by a wealth of elegant structures. These became the urban centres, "which every member of the society wanted to be associated with because of their levels of sophistication-both in terms of products being retailed and for the general purpose of associating with style" (Berg, 2005). The urban centres were recognised as the soul of material possession, elegance and style. The aspect of consumer culture brought about a new social order. Increased spending earned an individual some level of respect from the other members of the society. These developments led to the growth of more distinct social classes that were divided based on refinement, influence, power, wealth and consumerism.
While the wealthy middle-class dominated the urban centres, the poor working class also practiced the culture of consumptions as they aspired to inherit the elegant social classes held by the lavish spenders. The importance of consumption, even though on a smaller scale, was seen to take root in the small towns and shopping centres. Weekly markets, for instance, were filled with merchants and buyers who aspired to partake in the culture of retail and consumption. Berg affirms that hawkers, peddlers and dealers in agricultural produce "were among the many individuals involved in the businesses of purchase and retail" (Berg, 2005). Among the working-class, spending was enough. Accumulation of commodities among them was not marked with elegance, but the involvement in the practice was fulfilling as a cultural phenomenon. In contrast, the middle-class spent their money in an elegant fashion. The middle-class not only partook in the consumerism, they did so with utmost grandeur. They purchased the most expensive and high-quality products "to remain dominant in their classes that were punctuated by style and fashion" (White, 2006, 96). Most shops embraced an attractive design in order to attract the passers-by. Considering most individuals in this period had ventured in some form of retail businesses, the competition and rush to attract as many customers was abundantly great. This aspect was necessitated by the consumer culture that had rocked England during the eighteenth century. As such, the emergence of elegance in shopping centres further led to the sophistication and urbanisation of the shops. Brilliant and colourful lighting were embraced in order to attract the potential buyers. The aspect of consumerism during this period significantly contributed to the development of these trends. Eventually, consumption and the purchase of commodities were seen as the greatest measure of patriotism. These activities were regarded as the indicators of social importance, and thus, earned one a spot among the most respected hierarchical classes.
As the social classes categorised all individuals within the society according to their levels of refinement and elegance, the shops also started being stratified according to the consumers they attracted based on the characteristics of products on retail. As such, the emergence of shops that catered to refined tastes was seen to take shape during this period. Kowaleski-Wallace claims that shopping in such avenues "automatically defined the social class and status of the consumer" (Kowaleski-Wallace, 1995, 163). This is another significant way by which the commodities and consumer culture can be seen as markers of class in the eighteenth-century England. The various classes of traders, some of who traded in furniture, clothing, hats and jewellery, marked their niches and territories. They popularised their trademarks and became renowned among the middle-class elites with money to spend on their commodities. They were the greatest contributors to the class system based on consumer abilities to purchase their expensive and fashionable products. The wealthy individuals were keen on publicising the trademarks of their preferred retailers, especially as these "boosted their social relevance and profiles" (White, M. 2017). Wearing a certain brand of cloth or jewellery would earn an individual utmost respect within the society. In addition, ensuring that the commodities were among the latest entrants into the market would earn an individual a significant amount of esteem based on their fashion statement, refinement and taste. According to a visitor to England, the eighteenth-century London was:
"a world of gold and silver plate, then pearls, gems shedding with their dazzling lustre , home manufacturers of the most exquisite taste, an ocean of rings, watches, chains, bracelets, perfumes, ribbons, ready-dresses, bonnets, laces and fruits from all zones of the habitable world" (White, M. 2017).
Barry states that the women of this period served as "mothers, wives or household managers" (Barry, 1991, 215). Their levels of refinement were thus measured through material possessions and household items. Expensive and elegant dresses, as well as jewellery and perfumes, were seen as the greatest possessions among women. The success of their husbands was reflected by their individual wellbeing and the wealth in household possessions. One of the most important household possessions during this period was the tea table. This commodity was a symbol of class and social distinction. Tea was among the greatest indicators of elegance and taste. As such, owning a tea table that captured the fashion and taste aspects earned an individual a great wealth of social respect and class. Expensive and fashionable dresses were worn on a need basis. This means that the wives of the rich middle-class men would change their attires according to their moods and activities. Jewellery and perfumes were also seen to complement their physical elegance and taste. These factors determined the levels of "refinement and class among members of the English society during the eighteenth-century" (Berg, 2005). They also determined the social significance that an individual was accorded.
Brewer observes that the "adoption of materials goods as tools of competition and the development of the materialistic culture were major periods that greatly contributed towards the growth of consumerism and commodities as markers of class" (Brewer, 2004). As opposed to the previous social structure where land owned by the aristocrats was seen as the only factor of wealth and influence, consumerism during the eighteenth-century England transformed the social spectrum by placing a greater premium on wealth and commodities. Lavish spending became significantly fashionable; hence, most middle-class members became involved in the rush to accumulate wealth and luxurious commodities as a social statement. A historian, Barry (1991, 212), affirms that from the period of Elizabeth I, "consumerism and competition based on commodity accumulation became significant aspects in terms of social differentiation. " Social differentiation was mainly achieved through variations in consumerism throughout the society. The competition in terms of consumption that initially involved the noble class gradually trickled down to the rest of society. Luxury products, according to Kowaleski-Wallace (1995, 160), played a significant role in the "partition of markets and social classes." The product variations mainly contributed to the greater difference in terms of the various levels of consumers within the society. Placing different values on varying commodities was decisive in the categorization of markets, vendors, commodities and eventually, class. The wealthy consumers dictated their levels of significance within the society, especially as they contributed to the success of the trading economy. A capitalist economy, which mainly relies on the success of individual businesses would emerge; thereby, "transforming the general society and advancing the culture of consumption" (Berg, 2005). The consumer culture led to the development of strong brands and through the gradual improvement in the quality of commodities, the levels of competition among consumers and retailers steadily increased. Class was determined by the taste, elegance and sophistication of each individual. As such, consumption served as a perfect marker of class during this period.
Conclusion
In conclusion, commodities and consumer culture were great determiners of class during the eighteenth-century England. As has been discussed above, lavish spending earned individuals a greater social authority in terms of both influence and elegance. The value that was placed on commodity accumulation, especially the expensive and luxurious products, served as the main determiners of an individual's class. The middle and the working classes were seen to possess distinct classes within the society. The differentiation of shops, markets and brands created the distinctive aspect experienced among members of these classes. Various commodities were accorded distinct values based on their quality and availability. These distinctions further contributed to their affordability among the various members of the society. As such, individuals occupying the elegant and sophisticated class, and who also wanted to stand out from the rest of society preferred to spend their money on the most premium products available in the market. The levels of influence and significance gained from the consumption of luxury products were also a primary determinant in their decisions to indulge in the material products. Through such actions, they marked and broadcasted their social class. Being among the wealthy middle-class, these individuals gained significant influence and ranked among the highest social hierarchy of the English society. Eventually, the urbanisation of shopping centres and the establishment of cities with distinct shopping areas designated for the high-ranking consumers served as the single-most important aspect that established class through the consumer culture and quality of commodities purchased by different individuals. The elegant, influential, sophisticated and styling consumers had their preferred types of designers, brands, markets and shops. Indeed, the consumption culture and types of commodities served as markers of class among these consumers.